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The Case for an Eclectic and
Flexible Leadership Research
Agenda: Dealing with Social Justice
and Diversity in the 21st Century
Workplace
El caso de una agenda de investigación sobre liderazgo
ecléctica y flexible: Cómo abordar la justicia social y la
diversidad en el lugar de trabajo del siglo XXI
Otto Federico von Feigenblatt
Ph.D, Keiser University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6033-6495,
vonfeigenblatt@hotmail.com
Reginald Dennis Calderon
Ph.d, Keiser University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, decalderon@keiseruniversity.edu,
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3292-4764
Theodore MacDonald
Ph.D, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, tedmacdon@fas.harvard.edu
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7625-4363
Abstract
The workplace is becoming increasingly diverse and therefore issues of social
justice and inclusion have rise to the top of the list of concerns of many
management teams. Nevertheless many managers find themselves at a loss in
terms of understanding the implications of the international concern on issues
of social justice. A holistic approach to diversity and social justice in the
workplace requires an applied anthropological perspective as well as an
interdisciplinary perspective. The present paper argues that managers and
leaders in general can borrow some very simple and useful techniques from
applied anthropology and education in order to foster a more inclusive and
just workplace.
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Resumen
El lugar de trabajo es cada vez más diverso y, por tanto, las cuestiones de
justicia social e inclusión han pasado a encabezar la lista de preocupaciones
de muchos equipos directivos. Sin embargo, muchos directivos se encuentran
perdidos a la hora de comprender las implicaciones de la preocupación
internacional por las cuestiones de justicia social. Un enfoque holístico de la
diversidad y la justicia social en el lugar de trabajo requiere una perspectiva
antropológica aplicada, así como una perspectiva interdisciplinaria. El
presente artículo sostiene que los directivos y líderes en general pueden tomar
prestadas algunas técnicas muy sencillas y útiles de la antropología aplicada
y la educación para fomentar un lugar de trabajo más inclusivo y justo.
Palabras clave/ Keywords
Justicia social, inclusión, antropología aplicada, liderazgo, educación
Social Justice, Inclusion, Applied Anthropology, Leadership, Education
Introduction
The most recent United States Census shows that the population of the
largest economy in the world is becoming more diverse (W. H. Frey,
2020; Gillion, 2020) . In particular Hispanics are growing as a
percentage of the population (Gonzalez, 2010; Sabogal, 2012; Shumow
& Pinto, 2014). One of the conclusions of the census is that the United
States will become a majority-minority nation in the near future
(Chetty, Hendren, Jones, & Porter, 2018). A similar process is taking
place in the European Union (Cakir, 2009). An aging population and
an influx of immigrants and refugees is changing the socio-cultural
makeup of the block. Moreover, internal changes in lifestyle choices
and greater recognition of cultural minorities is also making the
European workplace more diverse than ever before (Broome, DeTurk,
Kristjansdottir, Kanata, & Ganesan, 2002).
The previously mentioned increase in diversity coincides with a
increased awareness of issues of Social Justice (Kibbey, 2002). Police
reform in the United States, wealth inequality in the United Kingdom,
and religious discrimination in France, inter alia, are some of the
contemporary dialogues dealing with social justice (Chong, 2020).
There is little agreement over the long term effects of the current
dialogue of issues of social justice in the United States and Europe
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however there is consensus in terms of the fact that it is changing the
reality of the workplace (Constantino & Merchant, 1996; Ertel, 1991).
The nexus between an increased awareness of social justice issues and
an increased diversity in the workplace has resulted in a plethora of
challenges for managers trained during eras of greater homogeneity
and greater concerns for issues of uniformity and standardization
(Lemus, Feigenblatt, Orta, & Rivero, 2015; Stewart & Knowles, 2003).
Approaches to management that used to be considered best practices
are now perceived as coercive and discriminatory (Kamano & Khor,
1996; Kibbey, 2002; Masser & Abrams, 2004; Wei, 1996). Examples
include an emphasis on a single organizational culture, a focus on
quantitatively measured goals, and top down management styles, inter
alia (Anders, 2004).
How should managers deal with this brave new world of diversity and
increased sensitivity to differences? There is no simple answer to this
question but managers can learn from the experiences of disciplines
which have had since their inception a focus on culture and diversity.
Anthropology has undergone a transformation from a discipline at the
service of empire and governance to a discipline at the forefront of the
struggle for social justice and empowerment (Bowman, 2001;
"Declaration on Antropology and Human Rights," 1999; Eriksen,
2005; Turner, 1997). The transformation has not been a smooth
process but rather a traumatic learning experience marked by conflict,
both internal and external, and a reckoning with the past (Bob, 2002;
Gulliver, 1988).
A cursory review of the history of management reveals a disregard for
the influence of culture (Evans, 1976; Ewest & Klieg, 2012). The
emphasis in Scientific Management is the standardization of
procedures and tasks. Subsequent paradigms introduced the idea of
organizational learning and of corporate culture but with an emphasis
on one way communication and on the socialization of employees into
a so-called “single culture” (Koch, 2009). Employees were considered
to be passive recipients of the norms and values of the organization.
Mentorship programs and a vast array of professional training
activities were developed to achieve the goal of a “company
man/woman” (Stewart & Knowles, 2003).
Perhaps the archetypal exponent of this approach is the Japanese
“salary-man” (Bix, 2000; Chambers, 2007). In this approach the
salary man, because it is usually men who are considered to be career
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executive material, was socialized as a full member of the company
through a process of mentorship, rotations through every department,
and extracurricular activities such as sports (Feigenblatt, 2009a, 2012;
HSIN-HUANG, HSIAO, & WAN, 2007; Kingston, 2011). The goal was,
and to a certain extent still is, to mold the individual to fit the culture
of the company (Morton & Olenik, 2005). This approach leaves very
little space for diversity and instead attempts to recreate the conditions
of total institutions.
The five main Western approaches to management: scientific theory
by Frederick Taylor, administrative theory by Henry Fayol, Human
Relations Theory by Elton Mayo, and X&Y theory by Douglas
McGregor, and bureaucratic theory by Max Webber, oversimplify the
role of culture in management and leadership in general (Mahoney &
Schamber, 2004; Myers, 2008). Taylorism ignores culture altogether
and instead focuses on observable behavior and measurable
improvements to work processes. The other theories directly or
indirectly tackle the issue of culture but in a very simplistic way.
Douglas McGregor’s X & Y Theory is a very good example of the
reductionist tendency in management theory (Constantino &
Merchant, 1996). In all fairness, the oversimplification is partly a
result of the field’s pragmatism and emphasis on the development of
easy to apply best practices. The challenge is that reality is complex
and changing demographics make simple formulas obsolete and
counterproductive.
The field of education has taken important steps to adapt to changing
demographics (Eldridge & Cranston, 2009; Feigenblatt, 2016;
Georgakopoulos, 2009; Gonzalez, 2010). One such move is the
pervasiveness of differentiated education (Goldin, 1999). The idea is
that education has to adapt to the unique characteristics of each
student rather than providing one-size-fits-all solutions (Kimball,
2013). Students come with different experiences, different levels of
aptitude, and with a wide range of content mastery (Zhao, Hoge, Choi,
& Lee, 2007). Therefore, many education scholars have reached the,
now widely accepted conclusion that educators need to customize
education to the particular characteristics of students (Lueddeke,
2008; Macmillan, 2001). The use of pre-tests is now prevalent in order
to assess the starting point for students enrolled in a particular course
of study (Zhao et al., 2007; Ziegler & Leslie, 2003).
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Materials and Methods
Differentiation transcends simply modifying content but rather
includes the adaptation of both the delivery as well as the assessment
of the content. Thus, a teacher may use a variety of approaches to
teaching a lesson about the American Revolutionary War in order to
reach students from different backgrounds (Stern & Johnston, 2013).
Moreover, assessing the mastery of knowledge can also include
differentiation. A student may show the teacher mastery of knowledge
through a multimedia presentation or through a traditional essay.
Evaluations can be done as a group or individually. The possibilities
are endless but the goal is the same. Students should achieve certain
learning goals. Socio-emotional learning is becoming an important
aspect of differentiation in education (Adomeh, 2006; David,
Szentagotai, Lupu, & Cosman, 2008; Feigenblatt, Paliwal, Rivero,
Orta, & Lemus, 2015; Maag, 2008; Weinrach, Ellis, & MacLaren, 2001;
Ziegler & Leslie, 2003). Students come to class with a range of
experiences and are embedded in a range of contexts. As much as
teachers are not expected to serve as therapists for students, it is
important for teachers to explore and be aware of the socio-emotional
circumstances of their students (Maag, 2008).
The field of education has borrowed many theories and approaches to
leadership from the field of business administration (Bowen, 2013).
Nevertheless, the field of education has had a considerable head start
in terms of exploring the influence of culture on performance and in
particular, in terms of developing flexible approaches to deal with
diverse populations (Roche, 2013). There are several possible reasons
for the field of education taking the challenge more seriously than the
field of business management. One of the possible reasons for the
difference relates to the assumptions made about the positionality of
the managers/teachers (Stern & Johnston, 2013). In the case of
business administration employees are sometimes viewed as part of
the production process and therefore the emphasis is not catering to
their needs but rather the focus is on how to get them to adapt to the
organization’s work processes (Ewest & Klieg, 2012; Fritz, 1996). On
the other hand, in education there has been a gradual shift away from
the teacher-centered approach in favor of a service oriented paradigm
(Lueddeke, 2008). In other words, the relationship between teachers
and students has been recalibrated to foster dialogue rather than one
way communication. Moreover, differentiation and a student-centered
education empower the student to achieve learning goals through a
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vast array of ways and therefore help students maximize their
potential by fostering creativity and autonomy (hallinger & Lu, 2013).
The extrapolation of lessons learned from the field of education to the
interdisciplinary field of leadership studies is not only possible but
necessary. Employees are important stakeholders and thus it is
imperative for them to be involved in governance and to have a say in
how goals are reached (Dingwerth, 2008; Ellis & Levy, 2008). The
growing complexity of organizations and the increasing speed of
change in terms of social norms and technology require the optimal
use of the human capital available. A “one size fits all” approach to
management stifles creativity and wastes the creative potential of
employees.
Results
Leading voices in the interdisciplinary field of leadership studies have
acknowledged the importance of adapting to demographic changes
and increased diversity in the workplace, however there is
disagreement as to how to deal with the challenge (Broome et al.,
2002; W. H. Frey, 2018; Glick & Fiske, 1996; Guinier, Fine, Balin,
Bartow, & Stachel, 1994). Resistance to change in the field of
management mirrors early debates in the field of education over
similar issues and therefore lessons can be learned from this.
Managers trained in top-down approaches find it hard to delegate and
in particular can feel uncomfortable with giving employees discretion
as to the how of accomplishing goals (Goldsmith, Greenberg,
Robertson, & Hu-Chan, 2003; Patton, 2009). Greater autonomy for
white-collar jobs and in particular for jobs that require high levels of
training is commonplace but it is not as common for unskilled and
semi-skilled jobs (Ajis et al., 2010). The routine nature of many
manufacturing jobs shields the sector from some of the pressure to
provide employees with greater autonomy. Nevertheless the transition
of most advanced economies away from manufacturing and toward
services, and the leap of many developing countries from agricultural
societies into the information age, further exacerbates the need for
change (Albritton & Bureekul, 2004; Banyai, 2010; Bayulgen, 2008;
Bhaskaran, 2010).
Conclusions
Many scholars have brought to the attention of the academic
community the need for interdisciplinary dialogue (Feigenblatt, 2010;
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Kuhn, 1996; Sponsel, 1994; Wellin & Fine, 2007). The reasons for
greater dialogue across disciplinary borders are varied and cover a
wide range of issues. Problems can be tackled from a wide array of
perspectives and the strengths and weaknesses of one discipline can
be compensated by the strengths and weaknesses of another (Kimball,
2013; Roche, 2013; Sorkin, 1983). Moreover, triangulation of a
problem viewed through different lenses leads to a more holistic
understanding (Deegan, 2007). Sadly, there is a widespread focus on
the methodological elegance of studies rather than on the systemic
understanding of the phenomena being researched; in a way the
means has become more important than the end itself (Ellis & Levy,
2008; Feigenblatt, 2009b; Foucault, 1980). Therefore the main
conclusion of this brief exploratory overview of the challenge brought
about by greater diversity in the workplace is that a broad and flexible
toolkit will be required by the leaders of the future. Differentiation
from the classroom, cultural immersion from anthropological
fieldwork, the suspension of judgment, tolerance of uncertainty, and
communication skills are some of the many skills that should be
included in leadership training (Ewest & Klieg, 2012; L. R. Frey, 1995).
Rather than provide a focused agenda for future research, the present
paper aims to challenge the complacency of the academic community
in regards to the development of best practices for contemporary
leaders. Praxis and theory should work in a synergetic relationship.
Cooperation across departments is a staple recommendation in the
business sector, the same should be true in academia. Further
interdisciplinary research is needed to tackle the challenge of social
justice in the workplace as well as to explore how lessons from the
development of disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, and
education can enrich the fields of management and leadership.
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